_Network-based Language Teaching

Review of Network-based Language Teaching: Concepts and Practice
Eds. Mark Warschauer and Richard Kern
Cambridge University Press 2000
ISBN: 0-521-66136-6 $54.95 (cloth) 256 pp.
ISBN: 0-521-66742-9 $22.95 (paper)
Reviewed by Bryan Smith
The University of Arizona

This book consists of a collection of ten articles reporting recent descriptive and empirical research on network-based communication as related to applied linguistics and language teaching pedagogy. The underlying question addressed throughout is whether or not network-based language teaching (NBLT) is compatible with current educational theory in general and second language acquisition theory in particular. An introduction by Kern and Warschauer explores how network-based language teaching fits into current second language research and pedagogy. The next eight articles are organized around three areas of inquiry: context, interaction, and multimedia networking. The final chapter by Carol Chapelle frames each contribution in terms of previous research and future directions in the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL).
This collection will be of interest to scholars in the field of second language acquisition and pedagogy operating within empirical or ethnographic research paradigms, regardless of their particular theoretical perspective. Classroom teachers seeking to conduct action research, or those simply wanting to increase their knowledge of current findings in this area, will find this collection helpful in exploring the range of potential applications and challenges of network-based language teaching.
Simply put, the collection is an important contribution to the field of computer-assisted language learning and a cohesive addition to the emerging area of network-based language teaching. Accordingly, this book belongs in the personal collection of any serious researcher exploring computer-mediated communication in the second/foreign language classroom. A brief review of each of the chapters follows.

Introduction: Theory and practice of network-based language teaching

Chapter 2: Sociocollaborative language learning in Bulgaria

Chapter 3: Online learning in second language classrooms: An ethnographic study

Chapter 4: Negotiation in cyberspace: The role of chatting in the development of grammatical competence

Chapter 5: Writing into change: Style shifting in asynchronous electronic discourse

Chapter 6: Computers and collaborative writing in the foreign language curriculum

Chapter 7: Networked multimedia environments for second language acquisition

Chapter 8: An electronic literacy approach to network-based language teaching

Chapter 9: Task-based language learning via audiovisual networks: The LEVERAGE project

Chapter 10: Is network-based learning CALL?

Introduction
Theory and practice of network-based language teaching
Richard Kern & Mark Warschauer
In the introduction, Kern and Warschauer define network-based language teaching and explore how network-based language teaching and computer-assisted language learning in general fit into the changing face of second language research and pedagogy. The two main purposes of this collection are described by the authors as follows: "(1) to frame a conceptual rationale for network-based teaching in terms of trends in language acquisition theory and educational theory, and (2) to present a variety of recent empirical studies that will help scholars and educators to make informed decisions about both pedagogical practices and future research." Kern and Warschauer next outline major shifts in theoretical perspectives of language learning and teaching, through a concise account of structural, cognitive/constructivist, and finally sociocognitive perspectives. The changing nature of computer use is then illustrated within each of these three theoretical perspectives. Finally, the orientation, methodology, and data source of major research studies within each of the three theoretical frameworks is examined, focusing most heavily on studies in the sociocognitive camp. Kern and Warschauer then position each of the articles in this collection in terms of heretofore neglected areas of network-based language teaching research, including instructional contexts, the nature of interaction, and the impact of combining a variety of multimedia in network-based language teaching.
Read the Introduction online.

Context
Chapter 2
Sociocollaborative language learning in Bulgaria
Carla Meskill and Krassimira Ranglova
This article reports on a year-long mixed-method study on the use of computer technology at the University of Sofia, Bulgaria. The authors discuss the implementation and integration of computer technology into the English as a foreign language (EFL) curriculum, a change which represented a fundamental shift in pedagogical approach and required an extensive redesign of the English as a foreign language program. Meskill and Ranglova initially discuss the previous English as a foreign language curriculum, which emphasized the study of philology, the literary canon, and language appreciation in a teacher-fronted format. They then outline the new student-centered, integrated skills curriculum in terms of sociocognitive theory and practice. An interesting aspect of their approach is the use of network-based language teaching technology in the fusion of old and new curricular and pedagogical approaches. For example, while there was a clear shift away from a lecture-driven and transmission model of instruction, the new curriculum remained literature-based, using the contemporary short story as the organizing unit.
Meskill and Ranglova then outline how technology, content matter, and activities were integrated in the literature-based curriculum through the use of audio tape, concordancing programs and style checkers, word processing, and email collaborations.
Finally, the quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the new curriculum is reported. In the independent groups, pre-/post-test design element of the study, students in the experimental group (new curriculum) displayed significantly higher receptive gains in reading and vocabulary, grammar, and writing than the control group (previous curriculum). The final oral assessment scores for the experimental group were higher as well, though a direct comparison of the two groups is not appropriate for methodological reasons.
Teachers reported that the new curriculum required students and teachers alike to radically alter their understanding of what it is to learn a language. Because of the fundamental shift in perspective required by the new curriculum, instructors reported an initial shock followed by gradual and favorable adjustment to this new independent and participatory style of learning. Likewise, teachers felt their own adjustment experience, though initially quite difficult, eased by the immediately discernible benefits reaped by their students.
Students reported a very enthusiastic response to the new curriculum. They reported this "response-based" approach to literature involving email exchanges with American university students to be extremely helpful in terms of motivation, confidence, and overall English language development. Interestingly, though not unique in the literature, only half of the students found the peer editing element of the curriculum helpful.
This study provides evidence for "the viability of computer technologies as tools to support language learning goals and the sociocollaborative processes that promote them" as well as support for the pivotal role computer technology can play in facilitating a philosophical shift among teachers and students toward more progressive views of language teaching and learning.

Chapter 3
Online learning in second language classrooms: An ethnographic study
Mark Warschauer
Warschauer highlights the main findings of his ethnographic study previously reported in Electronic Literacies. Adding to the modest yet growing body of qualitative literature on the use of computer technology in the classroom, Warschauer's study attempted to "achieve a holistic, contextualized understanding of the actual implementation of online learning" (41). In four classrooms (from different institutions of higher learning) which reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of Hawaii, where the study was conducted, the research methodology employed longitudinal, open-ended interviews with students and teachers, audio- and video-taping class sessions, analysis of student electronic correspondence, and participant observation in the classes.
The main findings are discussed in terms of (1) the effect of sociocultural context on the use of technologies, (2) the importance of electronic literacies, and (3) the purpose of electronic literacies.
Sociocultural context: Findings in this area seem to suggest that teacher beliefs influence and steer the uses to which computer technology is put. This is illustrated through a discussion of one teacher's activism and how her political agenda extended to the use of computer technology in the classroom, as well as another instructor's use of technology to enforce an atmosphere of discipline through the use of online quizzes.
The importance of electronic literacy: Warschauer notes that a common thread found throughout all four classes was that students did not experience new technologies principally as an aid to second language learning, but that they saw themselves as developing critically important new literacy skills in a new medium.
The purpose of literacy activities: Activities were most effective when (1) students understood the purpose of the activities, (2) students found the activities culturally and socially relevant, and (3) students were able to use the new media in appropriate, purposeful ways. Based on the data of all four groups, Warschauer suggests that electronic learning activities (a) be learner-centered with the locus of control lying largely with the students, (b) be based on authentic communication, (c) be directed at making some real and relevant difference in the world, and (d) provide students an opportunity to explore and express their evolving identity.

Interaction
Chapter 4
Negotiation in cyberspace: The role of chatting in the development of grammatical competence
Jill Pellettieri
Writing largely from a cognitive interactionist perspective of second language acquisition (SLA), Pellettieri provides an account of an exploratory, task-based study of synchronous learner-learner interaction she terms network-based communication (NBC). Perhaps the first of its kind, this well-designed study tests the hypothesis that network-based communication, because it closely resembles oral face-to-face communication, will facilitate the negotiation of meaning and form-focused interaction, conditions widely believed to be conducive for SLA.
She initially gives an overview of more "traditional" theory and research supporting an interactionist perspective of second language acquisition, addressing notions of (modified) input and output, attention, corrective feedback, and task type. She then moves on to a discussion of recent network-based communication research as it relates to elements of communicative competence, language production, and input and output modifications.
For charting the negotiated interaction, Pellettieri uses the well-established model for non-native speaker (NNS) negotiation outlined in Varonis and Gass, which transpires and borrows from Pica, Kagany, & Falodun's communicative task framework to provide a theoretically-grounded assortment of task types for the study.
The results indicated that task-based network-based communication, while confirming some of the previous "interactionist" findings on non-native speaker oral conversation, elicits different behaviors in many other respects. Essentially, the findings suggest that task-based network-based communication can foster the negotiation of meaning, and that this negotiation appears to facilitate comprehension and successful communication among learners; that learners do attend to form in their output and produce various types of modified output during negotiated interaction. Further, this study confirms the importance of task type and difficulty for the quantity and quality of negotiation.

Pica, T., Kanagy, R., & Falodun, J. (1993). Choosing and using communication tasks for second language instruction. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 9-34). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Varonis, E., & Gass, S. (1985). Non-native/non-native conversations: A model for negotiation. Applied Linguistics, 6,71-90.

Chapter 5
Writing into change: Style shifting in asynchronous electronic discourse
Boyd Davis & Ralf Thiede
In this chapter, Davis and Thiede, writing from a discovery-based, collaborative learning perspective, explore native speaker (L1) and non-native speaker (L2) writers' style shifting as well as learners' awareness thereof in asynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC).
They show how asynchronous conferencing can be an effective tool for investigation of language use and illustrate potential benefits of asynchronous conferencing with native speaker and non-native speaker students. Their findings include the existence of rules of social practice that seem to apply across the board, including (1) be more than usually polite, and (2) do not be dismissive of comments made by peers or make them look dumb. They also found that compliments were common, but one-way in nature. Also of interest was the finding of cross cultural differences in how native speakers and non-native speakers handled compliments. Observed instances of style shifting are explained in terms of Bell's audience design, accommodation theory, and Wolfson's bulge hypothesis.

Chapter 6
Computers and collaborative writing in the foreign language curriculum
Jean Marie Schultz
This chapter discusses a mixed design experimental study carried out to compare the effects of synchronous computer-mediated peer editing to the effects of traditional face-to-face peer editing sessions among intermediate and intermediate-high level learners of French as a foreign language. The number of changes students made between essay drafts was used as the assessment indicator across four (traditional composition) categories: content, organization, style, and grammar.
A quantitative analysis of the data suggests that students benefit from both formats of peer editing, but in face-to-face interaction, the intermediate level students (French 3) produced quantitatively more changes and qualitatively more extensive changes in the content category than did the computer-mediated communication group. The more advanced students (French 4) who experienced both formats made more content and style changes than their counterparts in the computer-mediated-communication-only or face-to-face-only group.
A qualitative analysis of the computer and face-to-face transcripts indicated that there are clear differences in how students spend their time while peer editing. The face-to-face condition elicited primarily content-related feedback in the form of suggestions for elaboration and clarification, whereas the computer-mediated condition showed evidence of student concern with both content and organization. Interestingly though, relatively few specific ideas generated in the face-to-face mode actually found their way into students' compositions, despite the fact that there were quantitatively more content changes in this mode overall. There was also some evidence that the computer-mediated sessions were more conducive to off-task discourse than were the face-to-face sessions.
Students also rated the face-to-face peer editing more favorably in terms of perceived effectiveness, though the "mixed venue" group who had the opportunity to experience both formats was clearly aware of the benefits of the computer-mediated communication session, which included more processing time and a perceived benefit to spelling and grammar, as well as the advantage of being unrestricted by the conventions of verbal conversation.
Thus, this study strongly suggests that the question is not whether or not to use computer-mediated communication peer editing, but rather how to integrate this format with existing traditional formats in order to reap the benefits. As Schultz puts it, "Ultimately, it is the fusion of these two senses, the visual and the vocal, that allows us to make tremendous intellectual strides" (139).

Multimedia Networking
Chapter 7
Networked multimedia environments for second language acquisition
Dorothy M. Chun and Jan L. Plass
Writing from a theoretical perspective which integrates constructivist, cognitive, and interactionist approaches to second language acquisition, Chun and Plass use Project netLearn, a web-based multimedia project for second year German students, to illustrate theoretical and practical aspects of designing and implementing networked hypermedia environments for language teaching/learning.
Through the discussion of Project netLearn, Chun and Plass illustrate the apparent compatibility between networked multimedia environments and current theory and research in second language acquisition. A detailed discussion linking language skill and competency areas to the tools that support them, as well as an explanation of the tasks and activities found in Project netLearn, are clearly outlined from a constructivist perspective--complete with screen shots.
The next section begins with a discussion of the design principles on which netLearn was based. However, this section is also a template for developers of web-based multimedia language learning/teaching environments espousing a constructivist approach to second language acquisition. An overview of the constructivist theoretical perspective is followed by a discussion of design issues specific to learning with networked multimedia. The capabilities or features of the world wide web that have the potential to enhance language learning are elaborated through a discussion of previous research and Project netLearn. Finally, the authors address some of the concerns and reservations educators and researchers alike have about the use of networked environments for language teaching.
In sum, Chun and Plass argue that design of hypermedia language learning environments be based on the goal of supporting the cognitive processes involved in developing linguistic and pragmatic competence among learners. Designers should also strive to minimize potential negative effects brought about by the medium.

Chapter 8
An electronic literacy approach to network-based language teaching
Heidi Shetzer and Mark Warschauer
In chapter eight, Shetzer and Warschauer argue for an electronic literacy approach to network-based language teaching. First, a discussion of the proliferation of the Internet is elaborated in terms of literacy and the teaching of English, contrasting traditional conceptions of literacy and uses of information technology for language teaching with more progressive approaches. To address the many questions that arise when attempting to implement an electronic literacies approach, Shetzer and Warschauer outline a detailed electronic literacy framework, first providing an overview of the assumptions upon which such a framework is based, and later elaborating on three broad areas of electronic literacy skills: communication, construction, and research.
The authors next discuss classroom applications for their framework, which is designed to be used as a tool for planning Internet-based tasks and projects for the network-based language classroom. Throughout, skills and activities are suggested that promote autonomous learning and meaningful language use.
The authors, in keeping with an underlying critical approach to language learning/teaching evident throughout the article, note that many of the implications of their framework challenge the boundaries of traditional teaching.
The next section provides concrete and detailed examples of classroom activities that address many of the language competencies/skills from each of the three parts of the framework (communication, construction, and research). The authors provide a balanced view to their call for an electronic literacy approach by clearly acknowledging potential challenges to teaching and learning such an approach may face.
Finally, a co-constructivist view of language learning/teaching emerges as the authors elaborate on potential (positive) research implications of an electronic literacy approach.

Chapter 9
Task-based language learning via audiovisual networks: The LEVERAGE project
Christoph Zähner, Agnès Fauverge, and Jan Wong
This chapter reports on the European LEVERAGE project, which was aimed at establishing how well broadband telecommunications networks are suited to the educational needs in today's multilingual and multicultural Europe. Specifically, this project sought to assess the practicality of providing European language learners opportunities to engage in peer collaboration across national boundaries with members of the target language culture.
Writing from a theoretical perspective which attempts to integrate the traditions of both cognitive and sociocultural approaches to second language acquisition, Zähner et al. describe a two-part, dual site empirical study of a task-based collaborative project involving learners of French and English as a second language. The first trial involved the use of audio and video conferencing only, whereas the second trial incorporated a text-based chat tool as well.
The networked learning environment offering video and audio conferencing allowed high-level metaconscious processing of what constituted the task. Students were also able to plan a series of intermediate stages to achieve the task objectives, and to support each other in the accomplishment of the task. Limitations of this networked learning environment included insufficient opportunities or venues of "externalization" whereby learners can establish intersubjectivity with collaborators as well as reflect on their own thinking and acting. Other problems were technical in nature and involved transmission delays, which interfered with the turn-taking rhythm and the "newness" of the communication medium for students.
Interestingly, the "trial one" learning environment seemed to exacerbate existing inequalities in participation among students. The network-based oral communication seemed to introduce new hurdles for the more reticent students, a finding which, on the surface, seems to contradict previous research that suggests that networked environments elicit more equitable communication.
The researchers addressed the problem of externalization in the second "trial," in which a shared editor and a chat tool were included. One interesting finding in this trial was a dominant trend for learners to automatically choose to communicate in the target culture language (that they were learning) and rated the opportunity to speak the foreign language as the most important form of collaborative work. Peer tutoring seemed to emerge naturally out of the task and, not surprisingly, most of the instances of peer tutoring were seen at the lexical level. The text-based chat tool allowed learners to externalize their ideas better, eliciting negotiation or making them the subject for reflection.
In general, the LEVERAGE system appears to be effective for supporting collaborative learning. However, the authors argue that students must also be provided with the right setting to encourage collaborative work, including an appropriate and engaging task, a means of externalizing and exchanging thoughts and ideas in written form, and access to an adviser who can provide additional support when required.

Chapter 10
Is network-based learning CALL?
Carol A. Chapelle
In the final chapter, Chapelle convincingly argues that advances in network-based language teaching research represents an expansion rather than a fundamental reconceptualization of computer-assisted language learning.
The chapter begins with a discussion of the type of empirically-based research that would help to make meaningful distinctions among pre-network computer-assisted language learning and network-based language teaching. Chapelle suggests a means of comparison using two criteria to determine the degree of similarity of pre-network computer-assisted language learning and network-based language teaching: a systematic analysis of computer-assisted language learning texts, and a categorization of computer-assisted language learning activities.
Chapelle then examines six themes in research that have emerged throughout the evolution of computer-assisted language learning over the past three decades, and elaborates on the relevance and relationship of network-based language teaching to each. The six themes are (1) the need for computer-assisted language learning evaluation, (2) the myth of a "CALL method," (3) significant features of computer-assisted language learning activities, (4) links to second language acquisition research, (5) classroom contexts of computer-assisted language learning, and (6) sociocultural issues of computer-assisted language learning.
The chapter concludes with an overview of significant contributions that network-based language teaching research offers the evolution of computer-assisted language learning, as well as the challenges such research faces.